The History of Rome, Book IV: The Revolution
The History of Rome, Book IV: The Revolution
Translated by William P. (William Purdie) Dickson
The late Roman Republic's most explosive era unfolds in Mommsen's masterful analysis of the Gracchi brothers and the cascading revolutions that shattered Rome's constitutional order. In this fourth volume, the Nobel Prize-winning historian traces the desperate reforms of Tiberius and Gaius Gracchi, who attempted to redistribute land and empower the Roman masses, only to be murdered by aristocratic violence. Mommsen illuminates how these killings established a lethal precedent: political opposition could be answered with assassination, fundamentally corrupting Roman political culture. The narrative then expands to examine Rome's brutal provincial governance in Spain, revealing the imperial machinery that would eventually consume the Republic itself. For readers seeking to understand the ancient world's most consequential political collapse, Mommsen offers not mere chronology but a profound diagnosis of how republics die.
Editions
X-Ray
“But the bitterest feature of this bitter time was that even hope and effort failed the clear-seeing patriot. The sun of freedom with all its endless store of blessings was constantly drawing nearer to its setting, and the twilight was settling over the very world that was still so brilliant. It was no accidental catastrophe which patriotism and genius might have warded off; it was ancient social evils”
— Theodor Mommsen
“Restoration is always revolution; but in this case it was not so much the old government as the old governor that was restored. The oligarchy made its appearance newly equipped in the armor of the tyrannis which had been overthrown.””
— Theodor Mommsen
“There are no set forms of high treason in history; whoever provokes one power in the state to conflict with another is certainly a revolutionist, but he may be at the same time a discerning and praiseworthy statesman.””
— Theodor Mommsen
“All the productions of the present epoch are smoother, more free from faults, more systematic than the creations of the sixth century. The literati and the friends of literature of this period not altogether unjustly looked down on their predecessors as bungling novices: but while they ridiculed or censured the defective labours of these novices, the very men who were the most gifted among them may have confessed to themselves that the season of the nation's youth was past, and may have ever and anon perhaps felt in the still depths of the heart a secret longing to stray once more in the delightful paths of youthful error.””
— Theodor Mommsen
“[I]t is significant that in this case, where the sudden amalgamation of a number of isolated cantons into a new political unity might have so naturally suggested the idea of a representative constitution in the modern sense, no trace of any such idea occurs; in fact the very opposite course was followed, and the communal organization was simply reproduced in a far more absurd manner than before. Nowhere perhaps is it so clearly apparent as in this instance, that in the view of antiquity a free constitution was inseparable from the appearance of the sovereign people in person in the primary assemblies, or from a city; and that the great fundamental idea of the modern republican-constitutional state, viz. the expression of the sovereignty of the people by a representative assembly”
— Theodor Mommsen
“While the leading state thus collected its energies in the prospect of the severe war impending, the insurgents had to solve the more difficult task of acquiring political organization during the struggle. [...] The Latin language, which was even then the prevailing language among the Marsians and Picentes, continued in official use, but the Samnite language which predominated in Southern Italy was placed side by side with it on a footing of equality; and the two were made use of alternately on the silver pieces which the new Italian state began to coin in its own name after Roman models and after the Roman standard, thus appropriating likewise the monopoly of coinage which Rome had exercised for two centuries. It is evident from these arrangements”
— Theodor Mommsen
“But such calm considerations do not mould history; it is not reason it is passion alone, that builds for the future.””
— Theodor Mommsen
“The specific type of Roman character rather repelled him. Sulla had nothing of the blunt hauteur which the grandees of Rome were fond of displaying in presence of the Greeks, or of the pomposity of narrow-minded great men; on the contrary he freely indulged his humour, appeared, to the scandal doubtless of many of his countrymen, in Greek towns in the Greek dress, or induced his aristocratic companions to drive their chariots personally at the games. He retained still less of those half-patriotic, half-selfish hopes, which in countries of free constitution allure every youth of talent into the political arena, and which he too like all others probably at one time felt. In such a life as his was, oscillating between passionate intoxication and more than sober awaking, illusions are speedily dissipated. Wishing and striving probably appeared to him folly in a world which withal was absolutely governed by chance, and in which, if men were to strive after anything at all, this chance could be the only aim of their efforts.””
— Theodor Mommsen
“But it was no less clear, that Gracchus himself and these merchants and proletarians were only kept together by mutual advantage, and that the men of material interests were ready to accept their posts, and the populace strictly so called its bread, quite as well from any other as from Gaius Gracchus. The institutions of Gracchus stood, for the moment at least, immoveably firm with the exception of a single one”
— Theodor Mommsen
About The History of Rome, Book IV: The Revolution
Chapter Summaries
- 1
- Describes Roman administration of conquered territories, focusing on Spain, Africa, and the eastern Mediterranean. Details the brutal suppression of revolts and the corrupt governance that characterized this period.
- 2
- Chronicles the social crisis that led to Tiberius Gracchus's agrarian reforms and his eventual murder by aristocrats. Examines the breakdown of traditional Roman politics and the rise of popular tribunes.
- 3
- Details the more comprehensive reforms of Gaius Gracchus, including grain distributions, jury reforms, and attempts at Italian citizenship. Ends with his death and the temporary restoration of aristocratic power.
Key Themes
- Political Corruption and Decay
- Mommsen extensively documents how the Roman aristocracy became increasingly corrupt, selling offices, accepting bribes, and prioritizing personal gain over public welfare. The Jugurthine War exemplifies this decay.
- Social and Economic Inequality
- The concentration of land in the hands of wealthy elites and the displacement of small farmers created a dangerous proletariat. The Gracchi attempted to address this through land redistribution.
- Constitutional Crisis and Violence
- The breakdown of traditional Roman political norms led to increasing violence, from the murder of Tiberius Gracchus to the civil conflicts that would eventually destroy the Republic.
Characters
- Tiberius Gracchus(protagonist)
- Roman tribune who initiated agrarian reforms to redistribute land to the poor. A well-meaning but politically naive reformer who was murdered by aristocrats in 133 BC.
- Gaius Gracchus(protagonist)
- Younger brother of Tiberius, more talented and passionate. Became tribune and created a comprehensive new constitution before being killed in 121 BC.
- Scipio Aemilianus(major)
- Distinguished Roman general and statesman, conqueror of Carthage and Numantia. Represented moderate conservatism and was assassinated in 129 BC.
- Jugurtha(major)
- King of Numidia who waged war against Rome through bribery and military resistance. Represented the corruption of Roman politics before being captured and executed.
- Gaius Marius(major)
- Roman general who rose from humble origins to defeat Jugurtha and later the Cimbri. Reformed the army and represented the rise of military strongmen.
- Lucius Cornelius Sulla(major)
- Aristocratic officer who served under Marius and captured Jugurtha. His rivalry with Marius would later lead to civil war.
